a.- Mexico was the region of the New World where many PRE-COLOMBIAN civilizations developed, including the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, Mixtec, Zapotec, and the Aztec, who settled on the central plateau and whose last king, Montezuma II, was killed 1520 during the Spanish conquest.

b.- Spain rule Mexico from 1521 to 1821. In 1535 it (i.e. Mexico) became the viceroyalty of New Spain. Spanish culture and Catholicism were established, and the country's natural resources/precious metals were systematically exploited.

are concretised and reproduced through the instrument of "The State" .- the dominant imperial state acting as "State-Builder", in conjunction

*.- After the conquest, the Spaniards first imposed slavery, on the indigenous population. This was abolished in 1533 and replaced with an organisational framework characterised by a system of SERVICE AND TRIBUTE (ENCOMEINDA). This system effectively assigned the groups of the indigenous population to various Spaniards who were given the right to impose tributes, in goods, personal service, etc. This tribute was the principal source of APPROPRIATED SURPLUS...WHICH WAS THEN REALISED AND REPATRIATED ABROAD THRU' INVESTMENT IN AGRICULTURE, MINING, COMMERCIAL AND OTHER ENTERPRISES, AS WELL AS FURTHER TERRITORIAL EXPANSION.

FROM MID 16TH C. THE SYSTEM OF LABOUR/PERSONAL SERVICES TRIBUTE WAS REPLACED WITH A NEW SYSTEM OF FORMALLY ASSIGNING CERTAIN MAN-DAYS TO INDIVIDUAL SPANIARDS ( REPARTIMIENTO) ....WHO HAD TO PAY A CERTAIN WAGE TO THE INDIANS SUBJECTED TO THE EXTRA-ECONOMIC COERCION. ( THIS SYSTEM WAS NOT UNIVERSALLY APPLIED...EG. NOT IN CHILE DUE TO THE RELATIVE INSIGNIFICANCE OF MINES ETC. PLUS THE LOWER LEVEL OF SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE INDIGENOUS POPULATION. (AS COMPARED WITH THE AZTECS AND INCAS).

THIS SYSTEM LASTED UNTIL 1630s, IT WAS LESS PROMINENT IN AGRICULTURE... DUE TO RELATIVE SHORTAGE OF LABOUR CAUSED BY

HENCE.....THE SPANISH LANDOWNERS BEGAN TO HIRE ADDITIONAL LABOUR AND PAY WAGES ABOVE OFFICIAL RATES UNDER THE SYSTEM. WITH FURTHER EXPANSION OF AGRICULTURE....LABOUR SUPPLY WAS ENSURED THRU TYING THE PEASANTRY THRU' DEBTS, OTHER MEANS.

after this...the hacienda became the dominant form of labour organisation in agriculture.

from 1575 ---> the mining industry declined..as the easiest veins were exhausted....and increasing taxation increased production costs...the expanding spanish agriculture increasingly attracted capital and labour from the mining sector.

The indigenous population was reduced from 21 million in 1519 to 1 million by 1607; as a direct result of a combination of a) the reorganisation of the traditional system of production/social relations in accordance with the conquistadors economic imperatives; b) from one of the many Old World diseases to which they had no resistance.

a.- decline of the iberian powers.....ascendence of holland and england. the defeat of the invincible armada. from 1795 spanish power continued to decline. english victory over the invinvible armada, dramatically effected spanish attempts at maintaing trade routes + support military/administrative presence in the americas.

b.- increasing penetration of mexico by british/french manuf'd goods this; following spanish trade liberalisation from 1778 onwards in favour of britain, follwoing.... protracted wars with france..

c._ significantly, the reforms of 1778, increasingly opened up mexico's economy to manuf'd goods/especially textiles from britain and to a lesser extent, france.

d.- with advancement of industrialisation in the england...spain incresingly assumed position of intermediary between its american colonies and britain. this aleienated the indigenous merchants..etc.

e.- british economic penetration particulary significant.....

*.- initially, this took the shape of re-exporting indian textiles to lacs..

*.- later, with the development of british manufacturing, this was replaced with british goods.

these developments had far-reaching economic and political consequences for production and manufacturing in mexico and were determinant in promoting the political movement which led to independence.

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*.- Hence...The Major Mining And Agricultural Sector Was Politically And Economically Fortified By Trade Liberalisation Before The Turn Of The 19th C.

*.- This Led To The Emergence Of Powerful Merchant\Agr. Producers Class Who Became Antagonistic Towards Continued Spanish Imposition Restrictions/Tolls Etc.

*.- These Merchants/Producers Became The Supporters\Financiers Of Independence Movement To Get Rid Of Spanish estrictiveness.

The Habsburg rule

in 1861, the mexican gov. under juarez refused to pay interest on the loans borrowed by former mexican president miramon, who had been overthrown and exiled by jarez. enticed by the offer of 30% of the proceeds, rance joined expedition with england and france in recovery of 79 million francs owed to a swiss banker.

french forces remained in Mexico the pretext of reversing jareze's anti-christian policies. maximilian, the brother of emperor Franz-Joseph of austria was in 1864 offered the crown by the conservative opponents of jarez juarez and his supporters continued to fight against this new branch of the habsburg empire. following the ending of the us civil war in 1865, the us issued an ultimatum to france: withdraw forces from Mexico or face war with us, under the monroe doctrine.

with french withdrawal from mexico, the monarchy collapsed and maximilian was executed in 1867.

there followed a 34-year capitalist dictatorship under general porfirio diaz ( 1877-1911 ):

He was overthrown 1910 by Madero, who re-established a liberal/nationalist regime but was himself assassinated 1913.

the 1910 revolution brought changes in land ownership, labour legislations, and reduction in the powers of the roman catholic church. after a brief period of civil war 1920, mexico experienced gradual agricultural, political, and social reforms. in 1938 all foreign-owned oil wells were nationalized; compensation was not agreed until 1941. the years after diaz were marked by political and military strife with the usa, culminating in the unsuccessful us expedition 1916-17 to kill the revolutionary francisco `pancho villa (1877-1923).

The broadly based institutional revolutionary party (PRI) has dominated mexican politics since the 1920s, pursuing moderate, left-of-centre policies. from the 1970s, its popularity was damaged by the country's poor economic performance and rising international debts. however, despite criticisms from vested-interest groups such as the trade unions and the church, the pri scored a clear win in the 1985 elections. the government's problems increased later that year when an earthquake in mexico city caused thousands of deaths and made hundreds of thousands homeless, and in 1986 the government was forced to sign an agreement with The International Monetary Fund (IMF).

PRI under challenge the PRI faced its strongest challenge to date in the 1988 elections. however, despite claims of fraud, the pri candidate, Carlos Salinas De Gortari, was declared president by the electoral college. he subsequently led campaigns against corrupt trade unions and drug traffickers and worked closely with the bush administration to negotiate debt reductions. (around 250 political opposition activists were killed during Salinas' term 1988-94.) in 1992 public outrage followed a gas sewer-line explosion in mexico's second largest city, Guadalajara, In April, in which 194 died and 1,400 were injured. in the july 1992

state-governor elections, the pri suffered its second defeat in 63 years in Chihuahua state, losing to a pan candidate. the pri nominated Donaldo Colosio Murrieta as their presidential candidate, to succeed salinas, sept. 1993. in the same month important electoral reforms were introduced, aimed at curbing corruption, and in nov 1993 the north american free trade agreement (nafta) with the usa and canada was ratified by the mexican senate.

political uncertainty an uprising in the se state of chiapas by a newly formed rebel group, the ZAPATISTA NATIONAL LIBERATION ARMY (ZNLA), jan 1994 was harshly put down by government troops. the znla opposed the recent nafta agreement, which they claimed would benefit only the better-off members of society, and demanded political reform and land distribution. the government offered a unilateral cease-fire and awarded the rebels political recognition as the zapatista national liberation front (ezln), and a peace accord was signed in march. in the same month the pri presidential candidate, donaldo colosio murrieta, was assassinated. he was replaced by jose francisco ruiz massieu, who went on to win the aug 1994 presidential elections. the following month the pri secretary general, was assassinated. subsequent investigations into his killing suggested a conspiracy, involving senior members of the pri and a mexican drug cartel. meanwhile, allegations of electoral fraud in state-governor elections in chiapas had led the ezln to swear in a rival candidate to the official pri winner.

currency crisis share prices plunged later in dec, when contrary to earlier assurances, the government devalued mexico's currency, the peso, allowing it to float freely on international markets. by jan 1995 the peso had lost a third of its value forcing zedillo to announce an austerity programme, to which the usa and international community responded by authorizing loans worth nearly $50 billion.

zedillo also signed an electoral-reform pact, which included an agreement to re-run elections in chiapas and one other state. at the end of 1994, mexico's trade deficit was $28 billion.

in feb 1995 the pri suffered a landslide defeat in the key state of Jalisco, the third and most damaging defeat in its history. in the same month Zedillo ordered government forces into areas occupied by the ezln, but later recalled them and announced his willingness to resume talks.

former president, Salinas, went into exile march 1995 after his brother raul was charged in connection with the Sept 1994 murder of the PRI GENERAL SECRETARY RUIZ.

in Nov. 1995 government and Ezln representatives reached an agreement providing for greater autonomy for Maya Indians in Chiapas. Ezln and government representatives signed the first of six peace accords feb 1996 recognizing the right of native Americans to adopt traditional forms of government within their communities and to have adequate representation in the national parliament. peace talks stalled soon afterwards but were reopened in August.

however, violent attacks against the government by the new leftist popular revolutionary army (EPR) increased.

GOVERNMENT: AN OVER VIEW

Mexico is a federal republic of 31 states and a federal district, based in Mexico City. the constitution dates from 1917 and is broadly based on the us model. legislative power rests with a two-chamber national congress of senate, chamber of deputies, and directly elected president. the senate has a six-year term and the deputies serve for three years. the president serves a six-year term and chooses the cabinet. the senate has 128

members, each state and the federal district being represented by four senators. three of these are elected by majority election and the fourth by proportional representation. the chamber has 500 members: 300 representing single-member constituencies and 200 elected by proportional representation so as to give due weight to minority parties.members of congress are elected by universal suffrage. each state has an elected governor and chamber of deputies, elected for a six-year term.